Computers, Teachers, Peers -- Resources (Annotated Bibliography)

Computers, Teachers, Peers:
Science Learning Partners

R E S O U R C E S

A N N O T A T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS FOR CLP, KIE, SCOPE, WISE, AND HCS PROJECTS

IN PRESS | 2000 | 1999 | 1998 | 1997 | 1996 | 1995 | 1994 | 1993 | 1992 | 1991 | 1990 | 1989 | 1988 | ONLINE

Synergy Communities: Aggregated Learning about Education (SCALE)

National Science Foundation, #REC 00-87832

Marcia C. Linn, Principal Investigator

Science Controversies: On-line Partnerships in Education (SCOPE)

National Science Foundation, #REC 9873160

Marcia C. Linn, Principal Investigator

Web-Based Integrated Science Environment (WISE)

Supporting Teachers and Encouraging Lifelong Learning

National Science Foundation, #REC 9805420

Marcia C. Linn, Principal Investigator

The Knowledge Integration Environment

The Internet as Knowledge Integration Partner: Improving Science Learning

National Science Foundation, #MDR 9453861

Marcia C. Linn, Principal Investigator

Computer as Learning Partner Project

Improving the Impact and Relevance of Introductory Science Courses

National Science Foundation, #RED 91-55744

Marcia C. Linn, Principal Investigator

Hypermedia Case Studies in Computer Science

Designing Case Studies to Teach Complex Problem Solving: Capitalizing on Advanced Technologies

National Science Foundation, #MDR-894753

Marcia C. Linn, Principal Investigator, & Michael J. Clancy, Co-Principal Investigator

Bell, P. & Linn, M.C. (in press). Beliefs about science: How does science instruction contribute? In B.K. Kofer & P.R. Pintrich (Eds.), Personal Epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing. Mahwah: Erlbaum.

Beliefs about science inquiry come from texts, journals, news articles, biographies, and recently, the Internet. We explore how students respond to these diverse ideas and how science instruction can promote productive views of inquiry. We focus on controversy and debate, central features of science inquiry that are neglected in the curriculum and privileged in the popular press. We encourage curriculum designers to find responsible ways to incorporate controversy in to the curriculum and prepare all students to become lifelong science members.

Bell, P. & Linn, M.C. (2000). Scientific arguments as learning artifacts: Designing for learning from the web with KIE. International Journal of Science Education [Special Issue], 22, 797-817.

We designed Knowledge Integration Environment debate projects to take advantage of Internet resources and promote student understanding of science. Design decisions were guided by the Scaffolded Knowledge Integration framework. We examine how students use evidence, determine when students add more ideas and claims, and measure progress in understanding light propagation. To a moderate degree, students' views of the nature of science align with the quality of their arguments.

Davis, E. & Linn, M.C. (2000). Scaffolding students' knowledge integration: Prompts for reflection in KIE. International Journal of Science Education [Special Issue], 22, 819-837.

This research investigated learning and design questions. It explored which characteristics of prompts best support students in knowledge integration. The learning results indicate that prompting students to reflect significantly increases knowledge integration in science projects. The design results show that self-monitoring prompts, which encourage planing for and reflect on activities, help students demonstrate an integrated understanding other relevant science, while activity prompts, which guide the inquiry process, are less successful in prompting knowledge integration.

Linn, M.C. (2000). Controversy, the Internet, and deformed frogs: Making science accessible. In Who Will Do the Science of the Future? A Symposium on Careers of Women in Science (pp. 16-27). Washington, D.C.: National Academy.

Communicating a sense of excitement that sustains and nurtures our quest for scientific understanding can infect students with a quest for lifelong science learning. When students see that scientists regularly revisit their ideas and rethink their views, students are empowered to do the same.

Linn, M.C. (2000). Designing the Knowledge Integration Environment: The partnership inquiry process. International Journal of Science Education [Special Issue], 22, 781-796.

This paper describes the Partnership Inquiry Process and shows why it leads to effective, technology-rich science instruction that promotes lifelong learning. To design students' on-line debate activities, the Knowledge Integration Environment partnership followed an inquiry process involving (a) negotiating curricular goals based on prior research, (b) designing valid assessments, (c) conducting ecologically valid investigations, and (d) refining instruction in light of these investigations.

Linn, M.C. (2000). How can new media improve university research and instruction? In G. Anker, U.Hugl, & S. Laske (Eds.), Universitätsentwicklung und neue Medien (pp. 1-26). Dutcher Universitäts-Verlag, Germany: Gabler.

In this paper, I discuss the nature of fluency in information technology, characterize contributions from currentpedagogical research that can enhance instruction, and provide specific examples of innovative courses. I call on universities to put together the rich collaborative partnerships necessary to capitalize on these new media, conduct design studies to research innovative uses of new media, build on each other's efforts, and create a cohesive set of courses that ensure that graduates are fluent in information technology.

Linn, M. C. & Hsi, S. (2000). Computers, Teachers, and Peers: Science Learning Partners. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

This book shows how computers, teachers, and peers can serve as learning partners–helping students build on their ideas and restructure their views. It describes a partnership inquiry process where science teachers, science education researchers, discipline specialists, and technologists consider each other’s perspectives and jointly design instruction. It reports case studies of students learning science, classroom investigations, and insights from classroom teachers. Computers, teachers, peers encourages partnerships to design instruction to promote lifelong learning rather than allowing instruction to be decreed by texts, frameworks, or past practice.

Slotta, J. D. & Linn, M.C. (2000). The Knowledge Integration Environment: Helping students use the Internet effectively. In M. J. Jacobson & R. Kozma (Eds.), Learning the Sciences of the 21st Century (pp. 193-226). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

The Knowledge Integration Environment instructional framework builds on Computer as Learning Partner research. This paper synthesizes research into a framework called Scaffolded Knowledge Integration and describes how the framework guides instructional design. The Knowledge Integration Environment implements this framework in curriculum materials that draw on Internet resources to teach science.

Clancy, M. J. and M. C. Linn (1999). Patterns and Pedagogy. SIGCSE Bulletin: 13th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, New Orleans, Louisiana.

Current interest in the design and use of programming patterns resonates with a set of promising instructional practices. This paper synthesizes research on programming instruction and recommends innovations to help students learn and value programming patterns.

Linn, M. C., J. D. Slotta, et al. (1999). Organizing Principles for Science Education Partnerships: Case Studies of Students' Learning about "Rats in Space" and "Deformed Frogs". Educational Technology Research and Development 47(2): 61-85.

Pea, R.D., Tinker, R., Linn, M.C., Means, B., Bransford, J., Roschelle, J., Hsi, S., Brophy, S., & Songer, N. (1999). Toward a learning technologies knowledge network. Educational Technology Research and Development, Special Issue, 47(2), 19-38.

Snyder, L., Aho, A.V., Linn, M.C., et al. (1999). Be FIT! Being fluent with information technology. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Linn, M. C. (1998). Affirmative Action in the 1990s: Perspectives from Willystine Goodsell Award Winners. Educational Researcher, 27(9), 4-5.

The Willystine Goodsell Award is given by the American Educational Research Association to individuals whose scholarship, community building and activism promote equity. In these papers, individuals who have won the award look into the future.

Linn, M.C (1998). When Good Intentions and Subtle Stereotypes Clash: The Complexity of Selection Decisions. Educational Researcher, 27(9), 15-17.

One winner of the Willystine Goodsell award describes issues in selection decisions that contribute to inequitable outcomes. When decision makers use multiple criteria, subtle stereotypes can lead to unfair outcomes.

Linn, M.C. (1998). Affirmative Action in the 19901s: Next Steps. Educational Researcher, 27(9), 20.

The issues raised by winners of the Willystine Goodsell award suggest areas for research, community building, and activism.

Linn, M. C. (1998). The impact of technology on science instruction: Historical trends and current opportunities. In Tobin, K. & Fraser, B. (Ed.), International Handbook of Science Education. The Netherlands: Kluwer.

Technology, in the form of apparatus, films, computer simulations, scientific visualisations and electronic communication plays a major role in science education. Science educators have incorporated each new advance, often floundering before finding roles for technology that help students learn. In this chapter, four historical frameworks of science instruction and the resulting roles for technology are explained. The Computer as Learning Partner project, a ten year long research program aimed at improving middle school science learning, is used to illustrate current directions. The chapter closes by identifying tensions between technological opportunities and instructional effectiveness that will challenge researchers for years to come.

Linn, M., Bell, P., & Hsi, S. (1998). Using the Internet to enhance student understanding of science: The Knowledge Integration Environment. Interactive Learning Environments.

We have developed the Knowledge Integration Environment (KIE) to promote lifelong learning. We believe that science courses can promote lifelong learning by offering students science models that apply to problems they encounter in their everyday lives and by engaging students in personally relevant science projects where they connect science models to typical science resources such as those found on the Internet. Our instructional framework, Scaffolded Knowledge Integration (SKI) guides the design of the Knowledge Integration Environment. In this paper we describe the Knowledge Integration Environment and report results of "design experiments" carried out to guide improvement of Knowledge Integration instruction as well as to help us improve our understanding of lifelong learning.

Hsi, S. & Hoadley, C. M. (1997). Productive discussion in science: Gender equity through electronic discourse. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 6(1), 23-36.

This paper discusses aspects of electronic discourse that promote gender equity.

Hsi, S., Linn, M. C., & Bell, J. E. (1997). The role of spatial reasoning in engineering and the design of spatial instruction. Journal of Engineering Education, 86(2), 151-158.

This paper discusses how students learn introductory engineering concepts and describes an intervention that successfully improves students understanding of engineering design.

Jasanoff, S., Colwell, R., Dresselhaus, M. S., Goldman, R. D., Linn, M. C., & others (1997). Conversations with the community: AAAS at the millennium. Science, 278(5356), 2066-2067.

A survey of past and present AAAS presidents and board member identified complex causes, expertise and interdisciplinary research as the important issues influencing the conduct of science. The American Association for the Advancement of Sciences on-line community conversations on major scientific topics.

Linn, M.C. & Clark, H. (1997). When are science projects learning opportunities? Research Matters -- To the Science Teacher, National Association for Research in Science Teaching.
http://science.coe.uwf.edu/narst/research/projects.htm

This article discusses ways to use science projects to help student become lifelong learners.

Linn, M. C. (1997). The role of the laboratory in science learning. Elementary School Journal, 97(4), 401-417.

This paper describes how laboratories have contributed to learning science from four instructional perspectives.

Linn, M. C., Songer, N. B., & Eylon, B. S. (1996). Shifts and convergences in science learning and instruction. In Calfee, R. & Berliner, D. (Ed.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 438-490). Riverside, NJ: Macmillan.

In this chapter, we examine science learning and instruction historically, identifying shifts in the perspectives of those involved in science education as well as convergences that combine diverse perspectives. We define three historical periods and describe convergences during each period as well as shifts from one period to another. We highlight the contribution of psychologists to science education, and illustrate the advantages of multidisciplinary collaborations with two case studies. By synthesizing the progression of research in science education, we hope to encourage those concerned with science education and especially psychologists to join forces to improve science education.

Linn, M. C. (1996). Key to the information highway. Communications of the Association of Computing Machinery, 39(4), 34-35.

How can students and schools take advantage of the Internet to establish a lifelong habit of science learning? The Knowledge Integration Environment software combines a powerful instructional framework with Internet resources to help students learn science and teachers teach science.

Linn, M. C. & Eylon, B.-S. (1996). Lifelong science learning: A longitudinal case study. Proceedings of CogSci96.

How do students link school and personal experiences to develop a useful account of complex science topics? Can science courses provide a firm foundation for lifelong science learning? To answer these questions we analyze how "Pat" integrates and differentiates ideas and develops models to explain complex, personally-relevant experience with thermal phenomena. We examine Pat's process of conceptual change during an 8^th grade science class where a heat flow model of thermal events is introduced as well as after studying biology in ninth grade and after studying chemistry in the 11^th grade. Pat regularly links new ideas from science class and personal experience to explain topics like insulation and conduction or thermal equilibrium. Thus Pat links experience with home insulation to experiments using wool as an insulator. This linkage leads Pat to consider "air pockets" as a factor in insulation and to distinguish insulators (with air pockets) from metal conductors that "attract heat." These linkages help Pat construct a heat flow account of thermal events and connect it to the microscopic model introduced in chemistry. Pat's process of conceptual change demonstrates how longitudinal case studies contribute to the understanding of conceptual development. Future work will synthesize the conceptual change process of all 40 students we have studied longitudinally.

Linn, M. C. & Kessel, C. (1996). Success in mathematics: Increasing talent and gender diversity among college majors. In Kaput, J., Schoenfeld, A., & Dubinsky, E. (Ed.), Research in Collegiate Mathematics Education (pp. 101-144) (Vol. 2). Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society.

Over half the students who select mathematics as a college major switch to other fields. Although equal numbers of males and females enter college intending to be mathematics majors, females comprise 43% of those completing the undergraduate degree and 20% of those completing the Ph.D. We synthesize findings from two lines of research to shed light on this pattern of participation and persistence in mathematics. First, we examine grades earned by males and females as well as by persisters and switchers in mathematics. Studies of over 39,000 students indicate that females earn higher mathematics grades than males in undergraduate mathematics courses. In addition, switchers earn grades equal to those of persisters and some of the most talented males and females switch out of mathematics.

Second, we examine interview studies of over 1,500 students interested in mathematics and science from over 20 colleges and universities. In every study undergraduates complain that mathematics courses are designed to "weed out" students rather than to encourage the best to persist. Switchers more than persisters point out the poor quality of undergraduate mathematics instruction compared to instruction in other courses. Quality of instruction more than success in mathematics motivates students to switch out of mathematics and more females than males are so motivated. A consequence of the perceived low quality of mathematics instruction is the loss of talented students to other majors. We discuss options for calculus reform as a remedy for loss of talent and decreased diversity among mathematics majors.

Clancy, M. J. & Linn, M. C. (1996). Designing Pascal solutions: Case studies with data structures (1^st ed.). New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Text for data structures course incorporating case study mode of instruction.

Hoadley, C. M., Mann, L. M., Linn, M. C., & Clancy, M. J. (1996). When, why and how do novice programmers reuse code? [paper presented at the Sixth Workshop on Empirical Studies of Programmers]. In Gray, W. & Boehm-Davis, D. (Ed.), Empirical Studies of Programmers: Sixth Workshop (pp. 109-129). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Undergraduates in an introductory computer science course were given opportunities to reuse previously defined functions in solving problems. To reuse code students could invoke a function or tailor an example to a new situation. Both abstract understanding of a function and belief in the benefits of reusing code contributed to code reuse. Abstract understanding combined with positive views of reuse resulted in reuse 85% of the time. When neither positive beliefs nor abstract understanding were present reuse dropped by 10%. Thus, to increase reuse, we advocate instruction that emphasizes abstract understanding and stresses the benefits of reuse.

Linn, M. C. & Muilenburg, L. (1996). Creating lifelong science learners: What models form a firm foundation? Educational Researcher, 25(5), 18-24.

Recently published standards for science, mathematics, history, and other fields challenge educators to design instruction that sets in motion a lifelong habit of learning. Creating lifelong learners requires the redesign of instruction to ensure that students have a generative understanding and an inclination to progressively refine their ideas. We discuss research on middle school science learning and instruction that suggests how generative models of scientific phenomena can be developed, and we offer a framework for curriculum reform.

Linn, M. C. (1996). Cognition and distance learning. Journal for the American Society for Information Science, 47(11), 826-842.

Can distance learning transform higher education saving money and improving student learning? Modern technologies allow instructors to design distance learning environments with all the features of traditional courses and more. Whatfindings from research on instruction can help course designers make effective choices? I argue that students who take an autonomous stance toward instruction tend to learn from most courses and that course designers who take a scaffolded knowledge integration approach to course design can enable autonomous learning. To help designers create courses that transform passive students into autonomous learners, this paper draws on recent research on instruction. I describe the scaffolded knowledge integration framework and use this framework to interpret current approaches to distance learning.

Kessel, C. & Linn, M. C. (1996). Grades or scores: Predicting college mathematics performance. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices, 15(4), 10-14.

What are the best indicators of success in mathematics, and how are recent reforms in mathematics courses changing the relationships between predictors and success? Whereas grades and entrance examination scores each predict success in college mathematics within gender groups, scores underpredict female success. This has a variety of consequences, not only in undergraduate admissions but in other situations where entrance examination scores are used. Speed in selecting answers to short problems is an important factor in entrance examinations. In contrast, recent reforms in high school and college mathematics emphasize communication, both oral and written, different pedagogical styles, and more sustained problem solving. We review student performance on entrance examinations and in high school and college courses and examine the validity of entrance examinations. In addition, we analyze mathematicians' views of examinations and their relationship with calculus reform.

Linn, M., Resnick, M., Kay, A., Narodick, S., & Carlston, D. (1996). Education - Still the Great Challenge. In Greenberger, M. (Ed.), Technologies for the 21^st Century: Scaling Up (pp. 55-81) (1 ed.) (Vol. 7). Santa Monica: Council for Technology and the Individual.

This paper discusses current trends in education and technology

Hsi, S., Hoadley, C. M., & Linn, M. C. (1995). Lessons for the future of electronic collaboration from the Multimedia Forum Kiosk. Speculations in Science and Technology, 18, 265-277.

Capitalizing on new technology and recent cognitive research, we describe the design of a Multimedia Forum Kiosk (MFK) that engages a group in reflective discussion of complex topics. We describe the cycle of trial and refinement that improved this tool. We discuss opportunities for technology-based collaborative systems and their promise for education.

Linn, M. C. (1995). Designing computer learning environments for engineering and computer science: The scaffolded knowledge integration framework. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 4(2), 103-126.

This paper describes a framework called scaffolded knowledge integration and illustrates how it guided the design of two successful course enhancements in the field of computer science and engineering. One course enhancement, the LISP knowledge integration environment, improved learning and resulted in more gender-equitable outcomes. The second course enhancement minimized the importance of prior knowledge of spatial reasoning, eliminated gender differences in spatial reasoning, and helped students develop more comprehensive repertoire of spatial reasoning strategies. Taken together, these instruction research programs reinforce the value of the scaffolded knowledge integration framework and suggest directions for future curriculum reformer.

Linn, M. C. & Clark, H. C. (1995). How can assessment practices foster problem solving? [NARST Monograph]. In Lavoie, D. R. (Ed.), Towards a cognitive-science perspective for scientific problem solving (pp. 142-180) (Vol. 6). Manhattan, KS: National Association for Research in Science Teaching.

In this paper we discuss how views of assessment and problem solving have shifted and converged historically. We illustrate current interactions between assessment and problem solving by discussing the Computer as Learning Partner project and examine an investigation of performance evaluation in this project. We close with a discussion of trends and recommendations. We suggest that assessment and problem solving should be closely coupled, and question the value of standardized tests that primarily measure recall of science information.

Bell, P., Davis, E. A., & Linn, M. C. (1995). The knowledge integration environment: Theory and design. Proceedings of the Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Conference (CSCL '95: Bloomington, IN) (pp. 14-21). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bell, J. E., Linn, M. C., & Clancy, M. J. (1994). Knowledge integration in introductory programming: CodeProbe and interactive case studies. Interactive Learning Environments, 4(1), 75-95.

To help introductory programming students gain an integrated, generative understanding of LISP, we designed, implemented, and evaluated the LISP Knowledge Integration Environment (LISP-KIE). By knowledge integration, we mean linked, organized, and connected information about such aspects of programming as design, testing, specific problem solutions, and self-monitoring. We conducted two in-depth studies and one comparison study to show that the LISP-KIE fostered knowledge integration.

Linn, M. C. (1994). Gender and school science. In Husén, T. & Postlethwaite, T. N. (Ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Education (pp. 2436-2440) (2^nd ed.) (Vol. 4). New York: Pergamon Press.

Overall, the gender gap in participation and success in school science is narrowing slightly. Participation in science careers is also increasing although there is a tendency towards a leveling off in many technical areas. In order to attract more women to science, changes in both courses and careers is necessary. In addition, broader societal changes are needed to alter the norms and expectations for males and females in science.

Linn, M. C. (1994). A research base for science education: Historical perspectives. In Behrendt, H. (Ed.), Zur Didaktik der Physik und Chemie-Probleme und Perspektiven (pp. 26-59). Kiel, Germany: GDCP.

Historically, the methods for conducting science education research have shifted and the impact of research on curriculum innovation has increased. This paper chronicles changes in methods for science education research and discusses how research has influenced curriculum reform. The focus is particularly on the two-group comparison design and its historical role in science education. The paper concludes with the call for a repertoire of methods in science education.

Linn, M. C. & Eylon, B. S. (1994). Curriculum and the psychology of learning and instruction. In Husén, T. & Postlethwaite, T. N. (Ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Education (pp. 5338-5342) (2^nd ed.) (Vol. 8). New York: Pergamon Press.

A new consensus about the nature of science learning and the characteristics of effective instruction in science is emerging. Perspectives on science education that grew out of the fields of developmental psychology, differential psychology, science teaching, and problem solving are beginning to converge. Current debates about science education are joined by experts representing a broad range of relevant areas including classroom teaching, the biological and physical sciences, curriculum development, technology, social psychology, and cognitive psychology.

Linn, M. C. (1994). The tyranny of the mean: Gender and expectations. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 41(7), 766-769.

This paper explores expectations and beliefs about who participates in mathematics careers. It illustrates the impact of stereotyping in mathematics.

Lewis, E. L. & Linn, M. C. (1994). Heat energy and temperature concepts of adolescents, adults, and experts: Implications for curricular improvements. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(6), 657-677.

We conducted two studies of beliefs about laboratory and everyday thermal phenomena held by adolescents, adults, and scientists. Respondents in each group held many intuitive ideas that were well established. Although scientists made more accurate predictions than students and gave theoretical definitions of terms, they too had difficulty explaining everyday phenomena. We found marked improvements in posttest scores and clinical interview responses as a result of instruction that built on students' intuitions.

Linn, M. C., diSessa, A., Pea, R. D., & Songer, N. B. (1994). Can research on science learning and instruction inform standards for science education? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 3(1), 7-15.

We contrast the current science education reform effort with the reforms of the 1960's and suggest how the current effort could be enhanced. We identify insights from recent research that we believe can inform the reform process. In particular, to reach all science students and also impart a cohesive view of science. We propose an "alternative models" view of scientific explanation and show how this view would contribute to reforms of (a) course goals, (b) social aspects of science learning, © instructional practices, and (d) roles for technology.

Lewis, E. L., Stern, J., & Linn, M. C. (1993). The effect of computer simulations on introductory thermodynamics understanding. Educational Technology, 33(1), 45-58.

How can simulations help students to construct a more robust view of thermodynamics? We reformulated a 13-week thermodynamics curriculum to include simulations of problems encountered in students' daily lives. To foster integration, we also provided the students with a pragmatic model emphasizing heat flow, and encouraged students to reflect on the relationships between their classroom experiences and their prior real-world experiences. These modifications to the curriculum resulted in increases in the percentage of students who distinguished between heat energy and temperature, one measure of knowledge integration. Students also did well at explaining naturally-occurring phenomena and were able to generalize the concepts of insulation and conduction. Deficiencies in understanding of certain other concepts, such as thermal equilibrium, suggest future improvements to the curriculum.

Linn, M. C. & Burbules, N. C. (1993). Construction of knowledge and group learning. In Tobin, K. (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. 91-119). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

Arguments for group learning are usually buttressed by the claim that students learning together co-construct more powerful understandings than they could construct alone. Our goal here is to define the merits of group learning more carefully. We examine specific students' needs and learning goals in terms of group learning. We point out that co-construction of knowledge in group learning is but one of many constructive mechanisms, and may be less effective than autonomous learning for certain students, or for specific educational goals. Furthermore, we argue that, considering the diverse goals we pursue in education, group learning may not be helpful in attaining all of them.

Linn, M. C. & Songer, N. B. (1993). How do students make sense of science? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39(1), 47-73.

Traditional curricula present varied models of science, scientific reasoning, and justification for scientific assertions to children and adolescents. As a result, it is hardly surprising that the dispositions of children and adolescents towards science and scientific reasoning are varied and confused. In this investigation we examine how the models of science and scientific reasoning that students encounter as well as the instruction offered to them shape their views of science and their understanding of scientific phenomenon. In particular, we found that in general students' beliefs about science changed as a result of participating in the Computer as Laboratory Partner curriculum. Students became convinced that science was relevant to everyday problems and that the best way to learn science was to try and understand principles and apply them to new situations. Moreover, while gains in understanding of isolated knowledge were not influenced by beliefs, students with productive views of science were more successful at understanding integrated knowledge than those with less productive beliefs.

Linn, M. C., Songer, N. B., Lewis, E. L., & Stern, J. (1993). Using technology to teach thermodynamics: Achieving integrated understanding. In Ferguson, D. L. (Ed.), Advanced educational technologies for mathematics and science (pp. 5-60) (Vol. 107). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

This paper describes a perspective on the development of integrated scientific knowledge featuring "action knowledge," "intuitive conceptions," and "scientific ideas" and reports on three experimental investigations of student understanding in thermodynamics that support the perspective.

Davis, E. A., Linn, M. C., Mann, L. M., & Clancy, M. J. (1993). Mind your Ps and Qs: Using parentheses and quotes in LISP [paper presented at the Fifth Workshop on Empirical Studies of Programmers, Palo Alto, CA]. In Cook, C. R., Scholtz, J. C., & Spohrer, J. C. (Ed.), Empirical Studies of Programmers: Fifth Workshop (pp. 62-85). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

This paper explores the challenges of teaching LISP to non-computer science majors. It discusses the impact of case studies on learning

Linn, M. C. (1992). The computer as learning partner: Can computer tools teach science? In Sheingold, K., Roberts, L. G., & Malcom, S. M. (Ed.), This year in school science 1991: Technology for teaching and learning (pp. 31-69). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

A growing number of collaborative groups involving classroom teachers, cognitive researchers, technology experts, philosophers, psychologists, and natural scientists are joining together to improve science education. This paper describes the Computer as Laboratory Partner project physical science curriculum for middle school students. The computer serves as a learning partner in the sense that project activities take advantage of the strengths of the electronic environment to scaffold students as they learn.

Linn, M. C. (1992). Gender differences in educational achievement. In Pfleiderer, J. (Ed.), Sex equity in educational opportunity, achievement, and testing [Proceedings of the 1991 Educational Testing Service Invitational Conference](pp. 11-50). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

The gender gap in educational achievement as documented by national tests, individual studies, and course grades is closing. For verbal, spatial, and mathematical ability, the achievement gender gap and the experience gender gap are both closing but the gap in college admissions tests is closing more slowly. When course performance and college admissions test performance are compared males turn out to be better test takers and females turn out to be better course takers. Since college admissions tests underpredict the grades earned by females, one might infer, for example, that males need higher college admissions test scores to earn grades equal to those of females.

Linn, M. C. (1992). How can hypermedia tools help teach programming? Learning and Instruction, 2, 119-139.

This paper examines how hypermedia can contribute to effective knowledge organization for computer programming. It describes efforts to (a) create on-line, personalizable representations for knowledge of Lisp and Pascal, and (b) incorporate these on-line tools into both programming environments and programming curricula.

Linn, M. C. & Clancy, M. J. (1992). Can experts' explanations help students develop program design skills? International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 36(4), 511-551.

This paper reports an experimental investigation of the effectiveness of Case Studies for teaching programming. A case study provides an "expert commentary" on the complex problem-solving skills used in constructing a solution to a computer programming problem as well as one or more worked-out solutions to the problem. To conduct the investigation, we created case studies of programming problems and evaluated what high school students in 10 Pascal programming courses learned from them.

Linn, M. C. & Clancy, M. J. (1992). The case for case studies of programming problems. Communications of the ACM, 35(3), 121-132.

A case study is what we call a comprehensive description of an expert's solution to a "complex" programming problem. We claim that case studies are useful for teaching programming. We discuss as background how programming knowledge is organized, and analyze how program design skills-programming-specific versions of more general problem-solving skills-are taught. We then report on the success of our case studies in teaching program design.

Burbules, N. C. & Linn, M. C. (1991). Science education and the philosophy of science: Congruence or contradiction? International Journal of Science Education, 13(3), 227-241.

In this paper, we examine the goals and methods of science education from the standpoint of recent trends in the philosophy of science. Specifically, we consider the implications for science curricula and instruction of new perspectives on scientific knowledge, on the nature of evidence, and on how knowledge changes.

Lewis, E. L. (1991). The process of scientific knowledge acquisition among middle school students learning thermodynamics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA.

This study investigates how students participating in the same curriculum construct understanding in elementary thermodynamics. In particular, it addresses two questions: (1) How does the learners' understanding change during the study of elementary thermodynamics? and (2) What role do students' intuitive conceptions play in the restructuring and reorganization of their knowledge? Three types of students were identified: "converging," "progressing," and "oscillating." Case studies describing the responses of each category of student over a sequence of tests and interviews are presented. A detailed analysis of conceptual change emerges illustrating impediments to knowledge integration. These findings can be used by science educators to create materials that foster the development of robust, applicable science knowledge.

Linn, M. C. & Songer, N. B. (1991). Cognitive and conceptual change in adolescence. American Journal of Education, 99(4), 379-417.

Conceptual changes occur during adolescence, both because students assimilate knowledge about previously unstudied phenomena, and because ideas are replaced by more predictive, abstract, or robust notions. We note two key trends. First, students construct understanding by integrating observations and activities into intuitions following a process similar to that followed by scientists. Second, we note that learners often over-compartmentalize knowledge into "domains" and therefore fail to recognize parallels in similar situations.

Linn, M. C. & Songer, N. B. (1991). Teaching thermodynamics to middle school students: What are appropriate cognitive demands? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(10), 885-918.

We successively modified the cognitive demands of a 13-week thermodynamics curriculum for four cohorts of 100-200 eighth graders while maintaining the same basic experiments and real-time data collection software. When comparing post test performance across four versions, we found two- to four-fold increases in understanding when (a) students actively predicted outcomes and reconciled results, and (b) students used a heat-flow model of thermodynamics to integrate their experimental results.

Songer, N. B. & Linn, M. C. (1991). How do students' views of science influence knowledge integration? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9), 761-784.

This study characterized students' views of science and examined the relationship between views of science and acquisition of integrated understanding of thermodynamics. We found that students with dynamic views acquired more integrated understanding than those with static views.

Friedler, Y., Nachmias, R., & Linn, M. C. (1990). Learning scientific reasoning skills in microcomputer-based laboratories. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(2), 173-191.

This study contrasted the effects of two aspects of scientific investigation: observation and prediction. Students' scientific reasoning skills were developed in the content domain of temperature and heat energy using a microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) environment.

Linn, M. C. & Hyde, J. S. (1989). Gender, mathematics, and science. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 17-19, 22-27.

Many explain the underrepresentation of females in mathematics and science careers on the basis of gender differences on cognitive and psychosocial tasks yet mounting evidence suggests that these differences were always small and have declined and that differences arise in some contexts and situations but not others. This paper summarizes trends, argues that the search for explanations for asymmetrical distributions of males and females must be expanded, and makes recommendations for the future.

Eylon, B. S. & Linn, M. C. (1988). Learning and instruction: An examination of four research perspectivesin science education. Review of Educational Research, 58(3), 251-301.

Recent research in science education examines learning from four perspectives which we characterize as a focus on concept learning, a developmental focus, a differential focus, and a focus on problem solving. This paper illustrates how these perspectives, considered together, offer new insights into the knowledge and reasoning processes of science students and provide a framework for identifying mechanisms governing how individuals change their knowledge and thinking processes.

Hoadley, C. M. & Bell, P. (1996). Web for your head: The design of digital resources to enhance lifelong learning.
Available on-line: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/september96/kie/09hoadley.html

Linn, M.C. & Clark, H. (1997). When are science projects learning opportunities? Research Matters -- To the Science Teacher, National Association for Research in Science Teaching.
Available on-line: http://science.coe.uwf.edu/narst/research/projects.htm

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