The partnership had three founding tenets. We wanted students to achieve deep understanding of science, as reflected in their ability to solve complex and somewhat ambiguous everyday problems. We sought to take advantage of the technological tools that scientists regularly use. And we wanted to create instruction that equitably served males, females, and students from all cultural groups.

CLP members came together with mutual respect, diverse ideas about how to meet the needs of a broad range of students, and a willingness to develop a set of beliefs about instruction, learning, and curriculum design. Members have changed in the course of the project, but the core group has persisted —as has our approach to curriculum design and innovation. Newcomers learn from the group. Graduates have gone on to establish new partnerships while remaining connected to CLP.

"It takes a village" to create an effective science curriculum, and we have been fortunate to have wonderful partners, whom we gratefully acknowledge.

Principal Investigator: Marcia C. Linn.

Post-Doctoral scholars: Helen Clark, Yael Freidler, Sherry Hsi, Eileen Lewis, Rafi Nachmias, Jim Slotta, Nancy Songer.

Middle and High School science teachers: Doug Kirkpatrick, Claire Bove, Phil Dauber, Alicia Ruch-Flynn, Suzanna Gogh, Joy Houk, Colette Koretsky, Doug McKenzie, Lawrence Muilenberg, David Murnane, Staci Richards, and Richard Weinland.

Scientists: Alice Agogino, John Clement, John Layman, Fred Reif, David Samuel, Judah Schwartz, Bob Tinker.

Pedagogical Researchers: Nick Burbules, BatSheva Eylon, Ellen Madinach.

Graduate Student Researchers: Phillip Bell, Doug Clark, Helen Clark, Alex Cuthbert, Betsy Davis, Brian Foley, Chris Hoadley, Sherry Hsi, Eileen Lewis, Jacquie Madhok, Derek Newell, Dawn Rickey, Nancy Songer, Joanne Stein, Lydia Tien, Mark Thomas, Rich Weinland, Erika Whitney.

Software Designers: Judith Stern and Phillip Bell, Diana Beltran, Ben Berman, Brian Foley, and Mark Thomas.

The CLP partnership formed when Marcia Linn organized a school-University seminar series that brought faculty members in natural science, computer technology, mathematics, and education together with science and mathematics teachers in local school districts to discuss issues in education. Doug Kirkpatrick, a middle school science teacher known for his innovative work, was invited. Speaker Bob Tinker, a physicist trained at MIT, described real-time data collection software that students could use to investigate questions about heat and temperature using temperature-sensitive probes that displayed results in real-time on a graph. As president of the Technical Education Research Center, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Tinker advocated using this hardware and software in science classes everywhere. University of California physics Professor Fred Reif, an expert on heat and temperature, served as a discussant for Tinker’s talk. Reif’s work in statistical mechanics is well known in the physics community. Reif is also known for his work in science education interviewing undergraduate students and designing instruction to address the confusion and difficulties that students have in understanding science concepts. Reif lauded the software as useful for teaching thermal concepts.

After Tinker’s presentation, a group of us started meeting prior to each seminar to discuss the ways to improve middle school science. Kirkpatrick, Reif, and other seminar members participated, as did several graduate students, including Joanne Stein and Nancy Songer. Kirkpatrick was excited about computers and enthusiastic about applying for a Wheels for the Mind grant for Apple II Computers from Apple Computer, Inc. At the time, he was using a textbook (Introductory Physical Science) for some courses as well as hands-on activities that he had developed during National Science Foundation Summer Institutes at the Lawrence Hall of Science. These summer workshops gathered teachers interested in improving science through innovative technologies.

In 1984, the partnership received a National Science Foundation grant as well as an equipment grant of sixteen Apple II Computers from Apple Computer, and we launched the first version of the Computer as Learning Partner project in Kirkpatrick’s classroom.

In time to start in the classroom the following fall, Professor John Layman, a physicist and science educator from the University of Maryland, arrived at the Lawrence Hall of Science for a sabbatical. Layman had created and used temperature sensitive probes for high school and college courses and was very enthusiastic about the prospect of implementing this technology in middle school classrooms using personal computers. Layman’s background in physics and teacher preparation made him ideal for the partnership. Rafi Nachmias, who had just finished a Ph.D. at Tel Aviv University–working with David Chen to develop software for science instruction in Israel–became a post-doctoral scholar on the project, bringing with him several programs that he had developed for Apple II computers.

Everyone in the group agreed that we wanted students to gain a deep, coherent understanding of heat and temperature. We were inspired by Phil Morrison’s dictate that "less is more." We believed this meant spending more time on a few topics, but we were not sure how best to allocate the time. The teachers and researchers provided substantial evidence showing that most middle school students viewed science as a collection of facts to memorize and forget.

Initially, students used Apple II computers to collect and display the results of their experiments. Today, students use the Internet and networked computers, but they still collect data from experiments using real-time technologies that display results in graphs on their screens.

From the beginning, the Computer as Learning Partner has engaged students in experimentation and reflection. Written reflections, often in response to computer-presented prompts, remain an important component of the curriculum.

To implement real-time data collection and experiments about heat and temperature, the original thermodynamics instruction lasted twelve weeks, or most of a semester. With refinement, the instruction is more efficient. Other topics in energy, such as sound and light, are included, and the course remains a semester-long course.

From the beginning, we have designed assessments along with science curriculum activities. Many changes have been made to these assessments, but students always write a short essay in response to: "What is the difference between heat and temperature? Give two different examples to illustrate your answer." Using this question, we can compare any semester to any other semester and look at trends in performance over time.

To foster innovation, we conduct design studies, analyze the results, and redesign the instruction. Our design studies involve careful observation and assessment of student learning in the classroom. The partners then discuss how to improve learning outcomes. The group agrees on curricular changes and on research investigations. Then the group studies these new ideas in the classroom. When the results from these investigations are available, the group reflects on them and makes decisions about changes in the curriculum that seem likely to improve student understanding. The findings from the investigations also lead to refinements in the framework guiding this process. This book describes the refinement process as well as the pragmatic pedagogical principles we use to guide curriculum improvement.

We appreciate the support and encouragement of our program officers at the National Science Foundation including Ray Hannapel, Barbara Lovitts, Andrew Molnar, Mary Budd Rowe, Nora Sabelli, Gerhard Salinger, Larry Suter. This monograph draws on research supported by the National Science Foundation under grants MDR-8954753, MDR-9155744, and MDR-9453861. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or other collaborations.

This material was partially prepared while Marcia C. Linn was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences with financial support provided by the Spencer Foundation

This work draws on the research activities of the Computer as Learning Partner and Knowledge Integration Environment projects. We appreciate the contributions of all the group members and consultants. These include Steve Adams, Flavio Azevedo, Philip Bell, Benjamin Berman, Fred Beshears, Doug Clark, Helen Clark, Alex Cuthbert, Elizabeth Davis, Brian Foley, Christopher Hoadley, Doug Kirkpatrick, Eileen Lewis, Lawrence Muilenburg, Dawn Rickey, Jim Slotta, Nancy Songer, Judith Stern, Mark Thomas, Jacquie Madhok, Linda Shear, Patti Shank, Freda Husic, Igal Galili, Mariko Suzuki, Christina Schwarz.

We especially acknowledge the students whose dissertation research enhanced our understanding of these issues: Phillip Bell, Helen Clark, Betsy Davis, Sherry Hsi, Eileen Lewis, Nancy Songer.

The software design for the Computer as Learning Partner was initiated and sustained by Judith Stern. Stern designed and refined the Electronic Laboratory Notebook. Brian Foley and Eileen Lewis designed HeatBars. Mark Thomas designed the Thermal Model Kit. Rafi Nachmias designed PolyLine. Sherry Hsi and Chris Hoadley designed the Multimedia Forum Kiosk. Programmers Ben Berman, Diana Beltran, and Fred Beshears contribute to the software.

We appreciate insights and comments from project advisors and critical friends including John Bell, Carl Berger, Paul Black, John Bransford, Sean Brophy. Ann Brown, John Bruer, Nick Burbules, David Chen, Micki Chi, Michael Clancy, John Clement, Allen Collins, Lynn Corno, Marty Covington, Lee Cronbach, Andries van Dam, Andi diSessa, Danny Edelson, Bat-Sheva Eylon, Charlie Fisher, Barry Fisherman, Bernard Gifford, Bob Glaser, Fred Goldberg, Louis Gomez, David Hammer, Paul Horowitz, Yasmin Kafai, Joe Krajcik, Alan Lesgold, Cathy Lewis, Shirley Malcom, Jim Minstrell, Roy Pea, Peter Pirolli, Buddy Peshkin, Mitch Resnick, Bill Rohwer, Brian Reiser, Bill Sandoval, Marlene Scardamalia, Alan Schoenfeld, Elliot Soloway, Richard Snow, Lawrence Snyder,Sid Strauss, Robert Tinker, John Thomas, Ron Thornton, Allen Tucker, Jeffrey Ullman, Susan Williams, Barbara White, and Richard White.

Special thanks go to students who participated in seminars and reviewed the CLP case studies including: Thomas Boegel, Lydia Bonner, Doug Clark, Jennifer Esterly, Melonie Hall, and Ilana Horn.

Special appreciation goes to Lee J. Cronbach who always found time to offer encouragement, suggest a promising alternative, and point to a related line of work. Cronbach exemplifies our goal of knowledge integration.

We thank Vivian Auslander for helping us communicate our ideas clearly. We greatly appreciate the support, encouragement, and sage advice of Naomi Silverman, our editor at Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Thanks to all who helped with collection of data, analysis of data, production of reports, and creation of graphics. These include Joel Boardman, Madeline Bocaya, Marguerita Cervantes, Anna Chang, Dawn Davidson, Darragh Perrow, Tiffany Davis, Rob Fallon, Russell Iwanchuk, Christina Kinnison, Benjamin Liwnicz, Seri Nakazawa, Jean Near, Jennifer Palembas, Erica Peck, Mio Sekine, Liana Seneriches.

We appreciate the support and encouragement of our families and friends. Special thanks to C. Bruce Tarter and Per Peterson for making it possible for us to work on this project. Thanks to Frances Cyrog and George Cyrog for continuos support, encouragement, and enthusiasm for lifelong learning. And thanks to Daniel, Brian, Matthew, Allison, and Shana for giving us insight into how science understanding grows and develops.